However, further research should be carried out to assess the mode of action and long-term effects of NIBS to optimize their use in clinical settings. All these NIBS techniques offer different perspectives into the function and organization of auditory cortex. ![]() Additional neuromodulation techniques such as transcranial alternating current stimulation or transcranial random noise stimulation have been used to target frequency-specific neural oscillations of the auditory cortex, thereby providing further insight into modulation of auditory functions. ![]() For instance, NIBS studies showed that even when only one auditory cortex is stimulated unilaterally, bilateral modulation may result, thereby highlighting the influence of functional connectivity between auditory cortices. In particular, in the last decade, NIBS studies have enabled further advances in our understanding of auditory processing and its underlying functional organization. Recent literature however suggests that the relationship is not as straightforward as originally thought, and that TMS can show both linear and non-linear modulation of brain responses, highlighting complex network dynamics. TMS was initially used to address causality between specific brain areas and related behavior, such as language production, providing non-invasive alternatives to lesion studies. NIBS, especially transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation, have also been used in clinical settings, with however variable therapeutic outcome, highlighting the need to better understand the mechanisms underlying NIBS techniques. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) has been widely used as a research tool to modulate cortical excitability of motor as well as non-motor areas, including auditory or language-related areas.
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